The past of every city, especially Bukhara, is rich with significant events. For 25 centuries Bukhara experienced rise, world fame, fabulous wealth, also tough days, enemies’ invasions, complete down-and - out and distempered times. This precious land was trampled down by horse hoofs of Alexander of Macedonian’s army, Arabic invaders leaded by Kuteiba Ibn Muslim, the city was put on penal fire by Monlogian conqueror Genghiskhan. Not mentioning about intestine wars between local khans, their quantity can only be counted by some industrious historian, genuinely devoted to his job.

As time goes, epochs shifted one another, changed the look of ancient Вukhara, but owing to people’s mind and talent, the riches of glorious land was increased, for centuries were created masterpieces of material culture, left as invaluable inheritage to the next generations. Here in front of us appearing a picture of light sunny land with spacious deserts and flocks of karakul sheep, green oases with cotton fields, blossoming fragrant orchards, crossed by channels of many-kilometer length, unique monuments of the Middle Ages and modern industrial enterprises and premises.
With the view of keeping intact original beauty of Bukhara, UNESCO decided to commemorate in 1997 2500-year anniversary since the date of city foundation and establish international fund “Bukhara-2500”.

Bukhara in the 1st millenium B.C.
Political events in the middle of 1st millennium B.C. were highlighted in ancient Iranian and Greek sources. They emphasize that nomad tribes of sakes inhabiting the territory of south Kazakhstan and Tashkent province had close military, economic, cultural contacts with Central Asian people. Thus, sakes frequently conflicted with Persians on the territory of the Central Asia. In particular, the description of these events repeatedly mentioned ancient state Sogd. That name unified the territories of whole Zeravshan valley to its lower reaches. And the existence of Bukhara, Bukhara oasis and other inhabited areas proved that the territory was highly-populated.

The science has not detailed information on the time when Alexander of Macedonian’s army entered the territory of Bukhara. It’s known that Alexander, leading large army, went to Sogd and fought against sakes setting forth from the east. Spitamen, the leader of Central Asian people’s uprising against Alexander of Macedonian. Spitamen every time attacked his garrisons in Samarkand and left to the West along Zeravshan valley. That indicates, that near Bukhara Spitamen had a serious support as Alexander of Macedonian, chasing him, crossed whole Bukhara oasis, having destroyed with fire lots of settlements. Although the name of Bukhara were not mentioned in sources in regard with those events , we may suggest that activities and forces of Bukhara people supporting Spitamen were significant.

Further political history of Bukhara was not described in sources. To the south of Central Asia since 1st millennium A.D. was Tokharistan kingdom (southern lands of present Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and northern Afganistan) that faced serious political crisis. In the north, along lower reaches of Syrdarya, was a flourishing and strong Kangyui state (2nd millennium B.C.-4century A.D.) that conquered Tashkent and Semirechye to the east and Khorezm to the west.

Kangyui and Tokharistan for a long time fought for bordering lands, demonstrating their power. Of course, under such conditions Sogd and Bukhara failed to defend their political and economical independence. But archeological findings, in particular, coins of Greco-Bactrian state on the territory of Bukhara oasis feature that probably Bukhara related to Tokhiristan state, also known as Greco-Bactrian state. Rich Bukhara was governed by rulers of local dynasty. After fall of Tokharistan, silver coins mint there to copy tokharistan’s coins.

At 1st century B.C. Bukhara joined Kushan state. It was one of the largest states in the Central Asia. Scientists assume that the center of Kushan kingdom was near the present-day Kattakurgan, located 80 km from Samarkand.

In 5 century B.C. Bukhara became a part of Ephthalites’ state with capital of Paikent city, 40 km from Bukhara.

Аrab invasion to Bukhara.
The 8th century век was a peculiar border between two shifting epochs: pre-Muslim (pre-Arab) and Muslim (Arab). In 8th century Arab invasion and conquest of the Central Asia caused establishment of new religion and state language, including small feudal principalities and the system of unified state, new cultural and economic relations that leaded to considerable change of whole image of both material and spiritual culture of the city.

Аrab aristocracy decided to conquer Maveraunnakhr only during caliph Abdu Al Malike Ibn Nirvana’s ruling (685-705) after ending of intestine wars for power inside the caliphate and crashed uprisings in already conquered countries. In 705 Khorasan’s governor-general Kuteiba-ibn-Muslim started actions entailing invasion of whole Maveraunnakhr.

Кuteiba, using disunity inside the country and inner conflicts between local aristocrats-peasants managed to gradually reinforce Caliphate’s positions in the Central Asia. He invaded separate areas of Balkh region. Besides Balkh, he brought under control Chaganian (its ruler, Tish that time join Arabs and set them against neighboring lands), Shuman and others. In 706 he entered Maveraunnakhr with big army. Later, Kuteiba, taking across Amudarya, moved to Paikent, that time considered to be one of the most prosperous cities in Maveraunnakhr.

Paikend was called “merchants’ city” and also “copper-armor city” for its strongly fortified fortress. Here, Kuteiba’s army met dwellers’ stubborn resistance. In city defense took part not only Paikend people but also the rest of Sogdians, asked for help by the local dwellers. At the beginning the odds were in their favor while Arabs were down in their luck. Arab army for a long time was surrounded by Sogdians: Kuteiba’s communication lines were cut off.

In all the mosques of Iraq and Iran were offered prayers. Not owing to them Kuteiba was saved, but lack of began to solidarity among local rulers. Gradually some of them began to withdraw their detachments. Rows of heroic defenders of Paikend thinned, Kuteiba made full use of that situation: he conquered the city, robbed it and moved to Bukhara. Seige of Paikend continued, according to one data, 50 days, others- 10 months. Hardly he left five farsakhs from Paikend, the dwellers uprised and got rid of Arab garrison. After second conquer of Paikend, Kuteiba leveled it to the ground, killed all men, enslaved women and children. Arabs captured here as many trophies as nowhere else. Supposedly, the most significant part of it was huge quantity of arms and armors.
In 707 Kuteiba with new forces moved to Maveraunnakhr. Despite stubborn resistance of Sogdian people he reached Bukhara and invaded Ramitan. But battle for Bukhara failed. However, Kuteiba was persistant and in 709 with very large military forces he again crossed Amudarya and reached Bukhara. Its dwellers, as before, asked Sogdians and Turkic for help. Bloody battle started.

Then Kuteiba announced in public that anyone bringing enemy’s head would be awarded with 100 dirhams. Soon at the Arab Headquarters was built a pyramid of heads of Maveraunnakhr warriors but even that could not bear down the resistance of Bukhara defenders. Thus, Kuteiba again resorted to perfidy and deception. He sent to Tarkhun, the Sogdian tsar, his delegate to inform the ruler that Arabs supposedly leave in a while and then Turkic would attack Tarkhun, as Sogd was rich and beautiful, they would be anxious to conquer it. Deceived and frightened with those false words Sogdian tsar asked Kuteiba sender’s suggestions: what’s to be done. The reply was rather insidious: he should concluded peace with Kuteiba, tell Turkic that Arabs expected large army forces to come, and then Turkic would leave. Tarkhun, deceived by enemy, implicitly followed the advice. So, anti-Arab coalition broke up and Arabs conquered Bukhara.

Samanids.
Under conditions of weakening strength and influence of Arabic Caliphate, in its eastern part were created preconditions for foundation of an independent state leaded by local dynasties of Takhirids in Khorasan and Samanids in Central Asia. Strengthening of Samanids’ position related to the assignment of Takhir ibn Khusein for the post of governor general of Khorasan. By that time Samanids had ruled Maveraunnakhr. Before leaving Bagdad, Takhir appointed his son to all positions he held and wrote young prince the instruction for ideal feudal governor to rule a country. Soon after that Takhir was killed.

Таkhirids.
In the beginning of 9th century Bukhara had a status of province under the dominion of Takhirids’. Emir of Bukhara oasis had a chance to consume part of kharage, collected in Bukhara, for updating of irrigation facilities, upkeep of the army and civil services of early feudal state. Owing to improvement of water distribution system, both agriculture and crafts developed. But during Takhirids’ ruling, like Arabic emirs, fighting between peasants, governing aristocracy and old peasant aristocracy never stopped. Оne of Takhirids, in order to make an unruly Bukhara feudal sell him land, tortured him and kept in prison for 15 years. Tax-charged population of Bukhara uprose during the last Takhirid’s ruling to react to his endless requisitions.

In 873 the last of Takhirids’s dynasty, Khusein ibn Takhir at Tai left Khorasan with Khorezm army and went to Bukhara. At the beginning of 874 dwellers resisted for 5 days, a third part of the city was burnt; with an excuse of kharage they started robberies, especially at nights. The uprising broke out again, when Khusein wanted to exchange collected 1-year kharage in gytrifiy dirkhems to silver ones. Khusein escaped, Bukhara stayed in hands of the rebels. That was the end of Takhirids’ Dynasty in Bukhara. As a result, Khusein ibn Mukhammed al Khvaridji came to power in Bukhara, he renounced the authority of Yakub ibn Leis. Bukhara feudal aristocracy did not like all that, so, considering political situation, they decided to contact Samanid ibn Akhmed ibn Asad, the ruler of Samarkand and Fergana. The last sent to Bukhara his brother, Ismail ibn Akhmed. In a while, Ismail achieved independence in regard to Nasr ibn Akhmed, the legitimate leader of Samanids. In 892 Nasr died, leaving Ismail as his successor, later making Bukhara a real capital.

In 893 Ismail conducted a few successful campaigns against nomads, attached to his possessions Talas, grabbed many trophies. In 900 году near Balkh, Ismail defeated Arabic army of Saffarid Amre ibn Leis and attached Khorasan to his lands. The next year Tabaristan renounced the authority of Ismail. Bukhara rose to the capital of vast early feudal state of Samanids. So far, Samanids’ state merged numerous tribes and people under its power; it had to maintain huge forces of national army - gulyams. The basis of Samanids’ military forces comprised Turkic.

Qarakhanids.
Frequent people’s uprisings during Samanids’ ruling gradually but surely leaded the state to collapse. The second half of 10th century is marked by tense struggle with various intrigues where high-rank Turkic commanders took active part. One of most powerful and ambitious Turkic commanders Abuali Samjuri agreed with Karakhanid’s Bogra Khan to divide Samanids’ state as follows: Maveraunnakhr to be transferred to Bogra Khan, lands south to Amudarya - to Abuali. In general, as Samanids’ state became weaker, the top military guard was eager to set it apart.
During these secret negotiations Nukh Ibn Mansur (976 - 997) was on Samanids’ throne. Being a brave, decisive and energetic person, in that situation, he had no one to rely on, as Turkic commander Ayach sent towards Bogra Khan, was defeated and even captured. After all, Nukh asked Faik, a talented commander for help although doubted his devotion. But Faik lost battle to Bogra Khan, and, according to reliable sources, he did it on purpose. Bukhara stayed unprotected. The fact that Faik was appointed as governor general of Termez and Balkh also proves his betrayal. The defeat fo Nukh II ibn Mansur, the emir of Bukhara, made him leave the capital. Though when Bogra Khan fell ill, he left Bukhara. Nukh took that chance and turned his army back to Bukhara, having got Abuali’s support. But Bogra Khan left not only Bukhara but also Samarkand and died on the way to Kashgar.

In 996 Qarakhanids resumed attacking Bukhara. Nasr became the actual leader of Qarakhanids’ movement in Maveraunnakhr after Bogra Khan’s death. In 999 Bukhara was ultimately defeated by Qarakhanids’ rulers governing till by 1212.

Arrival of Mongolians and Genghis Khan.
Mongolian invaders brought to Central Asia tactics of merciless war actions, tested in previous campaigns- robberies, arsons, killing civilian population on mass scale, destroying architectural monuments. Nothing could stop them - neither age nor sex of their victims.

In February 1220 Mongolians, leaded by Genghis Khan, approached Bukhara. City garrison was quite small - only 10-12 thousand soldiers. City population desperately resisted but betrayal of clergy and commanders’ passiveness resulted in the fall of Bukhara.

City gates were deceitfully opened but entry of Genghis Khan and his army so far did not mean the city surrender, as 400 patriots, unwilling to become slaves, stayed in Bukhara arch and held the heroic defense for 12 days. When Bukhara surrendered, Genghis Khan requested lists of values, first of all, silver. He also made the rich and reputed hand over their property and inform about others’. When the values were collected, he allowed his army to plunder the city.

As a result of fighting were taken many captives. Among them were many artisans, used by new rulers as labor force. During Mongolian invasion Bukhara twice - in 1220 and 1273 years was destroyed, burnt and devastated. The news about its capture quickly spread over whole Maveraunnakhr, despite of panic and fear, people were ready to defend their independence. But heroic attempts of disorganized population were of no use, especially taking into account that local commanders were stupid while representatives of aristocracy and clergy turned out to be traitors of the people.

For control over conquered regions the Mongolians used Muslim merchants that had deceitfully behaved towards their fellows during the war. Actually, the conquerors let them to farm out Maveraunnakhr.

Between Timurids’ ruling and foundation of UzSSR.
Taking a chance of unstable situation in the region after Mongols’ invasion, Amir Temur came to power. So, in 1370 Bukhara joined huge Timurids’ state. However, Bukhara lost its political significance, as no less remarkable in every way Samarkand becamr the capital of the state. During ruling of Ulugbek, Timur’s grandson, Bukhara baecame cultural center of feudal world.

In 1506 Bukhara was conquered by new dynasty - Sheybanids, formed by settled and nomad Uzbek tribes. During early years of their ruling Samarkand remained the capital of the state. But in the second part of 11 century, at the time of Abdullakhan (1557 - 1598) Bukhara became political center of the state and the state itself was named Bukhara khanate. Sheybanids’ period is marked with considerable economic growth in Bukhara khanate. During that time was built the majority of architectural constructions, now defining the look of the old city. In the second half of 16th century during Sheybanids ruling, Djuibar sheikhs, owning vast lands around Bukhara (Chor-Bakr) acted a large part.

In 1595 Bukhara khanate was governed by new dynasty of Ashtrakhanids, named after astrakhan tsars. By the end of their ruling in 17th century, Bukhara khanate lost its economic and cultural significance. Decline of economy caused downsize of construction objects in the city.
In 1740 the Persian tsar Nadir conducted a campaign against Bukhara. Having conquered Bukhara khanate, he left in the city his successor Mukhammad Rakhim, who soon announced himself emir and founded a new dynasty - Mangits (1753 - 1920). This dynasty existed till the final fall of the emirate and proclaiming Soviet rule. The period of Mangits’ ruling was the darkest one in the history of Bukhara. Crafts, science, poetry, art of that time - declined, trade -reduced.

In 1860-70 Russian tsarist government attacked Bukhara emirate. Bukhata emirate was not prepared to war against Russia. The army was none of serious military force. In 1868 Bukhara troops surrender in bloody battles near Zerabulak. At the emir’s request a treaty was concluded, and Russia fixed its protectorate over Bukhara emirate.

On September 2, 1920 in Bukhara broke out people’s revolution resulted in emir overthrew and declaration of Bukhara People’s Soviet Rupublic, existed till 1924. After that Bukhara, as administrative center of Bukhara province, joined Uzbek Soviet Republic.

Independence.
Today the history of ancient city has turned a new page. Bukhara, as a part of independent Uzbekistan, is challenging revival and renewal. Tend of Bukhara people to civilized life; wish to live in democracy, freedom, growth of national self-consciousness provided many progressive changes to take place nowadays. New management system of national economy is being formed here. Leaseholds and joint stock companies, concerns, joint ventures became common things for the people. Since 1992, in line with the national traditions and practices of progressive democratic states, was put into operation the Law on reorganization of local authorities: appointed Khokims of the city and districts, that is an important stage of the emerging political system and independent statehood. Since 1989 the Uzbek language has been functioning as state language. At the same time, the city has Russian, Tajik, Korean, Armenian, Jewish, Turkmen, and Turkish national centers.

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